Buffalo Soldiers
On horseback and on foot, they fought the same enemy every day.
Stationed on the Texas frontier after the Civil War, Buffalo Soldiers were key figures of American westward expansion. They would go on to provide foreign and domestic military service for nearly a century. Buffalo Soldiers became symbols of African American patriotism, U.S. military multiculturalism, and persistence in the face of ongoing racism. Though the era of Buffalo Soldiers was relatively brief, today their proud and active legacy lives on in Texas and nationwide.
I never saw braver men anywhere. General John Pershing
The Civil War
Black soldiers had served in U.S. military conflicts as early as the American Revolution, but the history of the Buffalo Soldiers began with the formation of the United States Colored Troops during the Civil War.
The U.S. Colored Troops were Union regiments of mostly Black soldiers, serving in Louisiana, South Carolina, Kansas, and Missouri. More than 200,000 Black soldiers served the Union in the American Civil War. This included at least 140,000 men recruited from slave states and the Confederacy. Enslaved Black people and free persons in both the North and South saw wartime service as an opportunity to establish freedom, political enfranchisement, and economic prosperity.
Texas voted to secede with the Confederacy in 1861, and its reliance on enslaved labor continued through the Civil War. Some enslaved people were forced to perform labor for the Confederate Army. Still, the relatively new state remained somewhat isolated from the war. News of the Emancipation Proclamation did not fully reach the enslaved in Texas until the end of the war in 1865, two years after it was issued by President Abraham Lincoln.
Reconstruction and the Western Frontier
By the end of the Civil War, much of the South was in shambles and the country’s military was depleted. The U.S. needed to expand its ranks of “peacetime” soldiers, who would aid Reconstruction efforts and facilitate the expansion of the nation’s Western frontier.
On July 28, 1866, Congress passed the Army Reorganization Act, “An act to increase and fix the military peace establishment of the United States.” The Act created six all-Black peacetime military regiments. These were the 9th and 10th Cavalry and the 38th, 39th, 40th, and 41st Infantry. In 1869, the four infantry regiments were combined into two units: the 24th and 25th Infantry.
Black men saw military service as an opportunity for economic and social advancement. They earned $13 per month along with food, clothing, and board. The units took up various posts across the Southern Plains and Texas, where they aided frontier expansion efforts. The nickname of “Buffalo Soldiers” was originally used by Native peoples in the Plains region to refer to the 9th and 10th Cavalry, but it was eventually applied to all Black units. The buffalo even became part of the 10th Cavalry’s insignia.
Buffalo Soldiers played a major role in the Indian Wars of the late 19th century. They participated in almost all military campaigns against American Indians, who were resisting genocide and forced relocation at the hands of the United States. Most notable was the Red River War from 1874 to 1875, a series of conflicts fought across Kansas, Texas, and Indian Territory. Members of the Kiowa, Comanche, Southern Cheyenne, and Southern Arapaho Tribes opposed the increasing encroachment of Anglo settlers and buffalo hunters. Buffalo Soldiers were also engaged in the military campaign against war chief Victorio and his Apache forces in western Texas and New Mexico, eventually forcing them into Mexico in 1880. By the end of the Indian Wars in the 1890s, the Medal of Honor had been awarded to 16 Buffalo Soldiers for their service during the conflicts.
Military Distinction, Military Discrimination
Despite the honors they earned, Black servicemen continued to experience racial prejudice and even violence within the Army.
In the early years, the segregated units were led exclusively by white commanders. Because Southern whites opposed the presence of Black soldiers in their communities, Buffalo Soldiers could only serve west of the Mississippi River. They were forced to use outdated and shoddy equipment and animals, often given what had been cast off by white units. Many white officers even refused to command the all-Black regiments. Notable exceptions were Colonel Benjamin Grierson, who led the 10th Cavalry, and Colonel Edward Hatch, who commanded the 9th Cavalry in Texas. Despite these challenges, the Buffalo Soldiers became distinguished for their service record, discipline, military medals of honor, and low desertion rate.
Their service also demonstrated the gradual integration of Black soldiers into the U.S. Army. This began with Lieutenant Henry Ossian Flipper, who became the first Black graduate of West Point Military Academy and the Army’s first commissioned Black officer. Flipper was assigned to the 10th Cavalry, with whom he served at Fort Sill, Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma), and later at Fort Davis in Texas. Despite his distinguished service record, a smear campaign eventually led to Flipper being court martialed and dishonorably discharged in 1882. Flipper spent the rest of his life trying to clear his record, but he would not officially be pardoned until 1999.
Continued Service, at Home and Abroad
The position of Black American servicemen only grew more complicated as the United States began to establish itself as an international power.
After the Indian Wars ended in the 1890s, Buffalo Soldiers’ military service expanded to other conflicts in and outside of Texas. These included the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars between 1898 and 1902, as well as maintaining the U.S.-Mexico border during the Mexican Revolution (1910–1917).
Not all conflicts were military, however. Racial tensions at home occasionally led to clashes with civilian communities. One of the most famous was the Brownsville Raid of 1906. Members of the 25th Infantry were stationed at Fort Brown, in southern Texas, where they experienced discrimination from the local white community. On the night of August 13, an unidentified group raided Brownsville and shot bystanders, injuring one white man and killing another. Local residents immediately blamed the Black soldiers, leading to several investigations. When the soldiers firmly denied their involvement, the Army charged them for “conspiracy of silence.” President Theodore Roosevelt ultimately ordered the dishonorable discharge of all 167 men stationed at the fort.
John J. Pershing was a complicated ally for Black soldiers during this period. The noted white officer earned the nickname “Black Jack” for his early advocacy of Black soldiers, both as a commander on the frontier and while teaching at West Point. Pershing led the 10th Cavalry in the Punitive Expedition against Pancho Villa in 1916. When he later commanded the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) in World War I, however, he did not push back against the racial discrimination and segregation that had only worsened within the military by that time. The more than 350,000 Black soldiers who served in the AEF were mostly consigned to menial labor positions. Some Black soldiers served in the segregated 92nd and 93rd Divisions. While they did participate in combat on the front lines, the U.S. assigned these regiments to the French Army rather than integrate its own.
Before World War II, the 9th and 10th Cavalries were officially disbanded. Their members were integrated into service roles in other units. The 92nd Division, which had been nicknamed the “Buffalo Division,” saw combat in Italy. Both original infantry regiments served in the Pacific Theater as parts of larger divisions, and the 24th Infantry was credited for the first formal surrender of Japanese troops to U.S. forces. Still, the 25th Infantry regiment was also deactivated in 1949.
The “End” of a Legend
With the dawn of the Cold War and the full integration of the U.S. military, the age of Buffalo Soldier regiments drew to a close.
The 24th Infantry regiment was the last remaining Buffalo Soldiers unit. It received praise for its service in Japan during World War II and later for its service in the Korean War. The regiment was not only distinguished for its military victories, however. After World War II, it became a symbol of U.S. military multiculturalism throughout the Cold War. By emphasizing the successes of the 24th Infantry’s Black troops abroad, the U.S. could demonstrate to the world that it had “overcome” the deeply rooted history of racism that haunted it.
However, the actual experience of the 24th Regiment showed that this was not really the case. By 1951, various reports revealed that Black troops were being court martialed at disproportionately higher rates because of racism from white commanding officers. These problems were largely blamed on racial segregation that persisted in the military. As a result, the 24th Infantry regiment was disbanded later that year and integrated into other Army units.
An Ongoing Legacy
The official integration of the U.S. Army marked the “end” of the Buffalo Soldiers. Still, many individuals and organizations today are working to educate the public on their contributions and to keep their history alive.
Few realize the key role Buffalo Soldiers played in protecting and maintaining several of the country’s National Parks. Members of the 9th Cavalry and 24th Infantry, mostly veterans of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars, were stationed in Yosemite and Sequoia National Parks in 1899, 1903, and 1904. There, they performed tasks such as combatting the poaching of wildlife, guarding against theft of natural resources, constructing roads, and marking trails. At Sequoia, these efforts were led by Charles Young, the third Black man to graduate from West Point and the first Black superintendent of a national park. The work of the Buffalo Soldiers paved the way for the growth of the country’s national parks system and established some of the infrastructure that exists today.
Numerous historic sites and national organizations continue to celebrate the contributions of the Buffalo Soldiers. In West Texas, Fort Davis National Historic Site preserves the frontier military post where all four regiments were stationed. The Buffalo Soldiers National Museum in Houston seeks to preserve and present the history of Black military service from the American Revolution to the present. There are various local and national Buffalo Soldiers Associations, which host annual events and programming to educate the public on Buffalo Soldiers’ history. These include the Bexar County Buffalo Soldiers’ Association based in San Antonio, as well as the National Buffalo Soldiers 9th and 10th (Horse) Cavalry Association.
The Buffalo Soldiers also continue to hold a special place of honor in the U.S. Military Academy. Distinguished for their horsemanship, Buffalo Soldiers taught equestrian skills at West Point from 1907 to 1947. Today, the Academy honors the soldiers at an annual wreath-laying ceremony at its Buffalo Soldiers Field. Henry O. Flipper also remains a revered figure, with an annual award given in his honor. The Flipper Award is granted to a West Point graduating cadet who has overcome extraordinary adversity and demonstrated exemplary leadership during their time in the program.
In 1992, President George H. W. Bush officially declared July 28 as Buffalo Soldiers Day. The annual date commemorates the continued service and legacy of African American soldiers and a complicated history of U.S. expansion, systemic racism, and foreign military engagement.
Buffalo Soldier Timeline
The Army Reorganization Act authorized Congress to form the 9th and 10th Cavalry and the 38th, 39th, 40th, and 41st Infantry units. The soldiers signed up for five years and received three meals a day, a uniform, an education and $13.00 a month pay. These African American troops become known as "Buffalo Soldiers" because of their bravery in battles against Native Americans. The term eventually became a reference for all African American soldiers.
Cathay Williams was a cook for the Union Army. When the Civil War ended, Cathay needed to support herself. She signed up with the 25th Infantry Buffalo Soldiers as William Cathay. When she was hospitalized, the doctor discovered her secret. On October 14, 1868, "William Cathay" was declared unfit for duty and honorably discharged. In 1891, Cathay applied for a military pension, but was denied because women weren't eligible to be soldiers.
885 men of the 9th Cavalry Buffalo Soldiers regiment took up stations at Fort Stockton and Fort Davis. When not engaged in skirmishes with the Apache and Comanche Indians, the soldiers guarded civilian and government stagecoaches traveling along the San Antonio to El Paso road.
Fort Lancaster 9th Cavalry Company K soldiers were moving their horses to pasture. 400 Kickapoo Indians advanced toward the fort. The Buffalo Soldiers scurried to fire at the invaders while herding their valuable horses back toward the fort's corral. Bullets and arrows flew throughout the night. By the time the battle ended the next morning, Company K had lost 38 cavalry horses and two soldiers to the Kickapoo.
The original four infantry units of Buffalo Soldiers were reorganized into two regiments. The original 38th and 41st regiments became the 24th regiment, and the 39th and 40th were combined to become the 25th regiment. From that point on, the Buffalo Soldiers troops were comprised of the 9th and 10th Cavalry regiments and the 24th and 25th Infantry regiments.
Sergeant Emmanuel Stance of the 9th Cavalry left Fort McKavett to rescue two children captured in an Apache raid. Stance and his men fought off the Apaches multiple times. Both children and over a dozen stolen horses were recovered. For his valor, Stance was awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor and became the first African American soldier to win the country's highest civilian medal in the post-Civil War period.
Under the command of General William T. Sherman, the 10th Cavalry conducted an inspection tour of Texas frontier to determine the safety of white settlers against Indian threats. They traveled over 34,000 miles, mapping significant geographical features as they went. The information they gathered was used to develop highly detailed maps of the unsettled territory.
The U.S. Army began a campaign to remove all Comanche, Kiowa, Southern Cheyenne, and Arapaho from the southwest plains and relocate them to reservations in Indian Territory. Led by Comanche Chief Quanah Parker, the Indian tribes fought one last battle for their native lands. The U.S. Army, including all regiments of the Buffalo Soldiers, engaged the Indians in over 20 battles from 1874 to 1875 in the Texas panhandle around the Red River.
Henry O. Flipper was the first African American cadet to graduate from the United States Military Academy at West Point.
Sixty 10th Cavalry Buffalo Soldiers, led by Captain Nicholas Nolan, headed out from Fort Concho across drought-stricken north Texas in pursuit of raiding Comanches. Over the next five days, the troops became lost in the waterless Llano Estacado. Soldiers were delusional from dehydration and many drank the blood of their dead horses in order to survive. Four soldiers died. This incident, called "The Staked Plains Horror," made headlines across the nation.
Legendary Apache Chief Victorio crossed back into Texas after successful raids in New Mexico. The 10th Cavalry and 24th Infantry units moved out toward Rattlesnake Springs, near present-day Van Horn, to intercept the chief and his warriors. The Buffalo Soldiers surrounded them and eventually drove them back across Texas into Mexico. One month later, Victorio was killed by Mexican troops.
The 10th Cavalry received notice that regimental headquarters were being moved from Fort Davis, Texas to Fort Apache, Arizona. Twelve Buffalo Soldier regiments plus the regimental band marched from Texas to Arizona following the tracks of the Southern Pacific Railroad. As raids decreased over the next five years, most Buffalo Soldier troops moved out of Texas.
"Always in the vanguard of civilization and in contact with the most warlike and savage Indians of the Plains. The officers and men have cheerfully endured many hardships and privations, and in the midst of great dangers steadfastly maintained a most gallant and zealous devotion to duty...it cannot fail, sooner or later, to meet with due recognition and reward..."
-- General Benjamin Grierson, relinquishing command of the 10th Cavalry
In the war with Spain, Major General Shafter led 17,000 troops, including 3,000 Buffalo Soldiers, into Cuba. The 24th Infantry and the 9th and 10th Cavalry charged up San Juan Hill with Teddy Roosevelt and his Rough Riders. Roosevelt later said,"No one can tell whether it was the Rough Riders or the men of the 9th who came forward with the greater courage to offer their lives in the service of their country."
Courtesy Library of Congress
"For the black man there is no glory in war... No; there is no honor, and but slight reward; let him fight like he can, in such furious onslaughts that nothing but the walls of hell can withstand him; and prove, to those vile creatures who would rob him of his glory and prowess, the soldier that he is, the most courageous...and the finest soldier the world has known."
-- American Citizen
Kansas City newspaper
In March, Mexican outlaw Pancho Villa attacked Columbus, New Mexico. President Wilson ordered Brigadier General John "Black Jack" Pershing to capture Villa in what became known as "Pershing's Punitive Expedition." Major Charles Young led the 10th Cavalry Buffalo Soldiers into Mexico. Months passed and many Buffalo Soldiers died in ceaseless fights with Villa's men, but Villa himself remained at large.
Courtesy Black Archives of Mid America, Kansas City
The 92nd and 93rd Infantry regiments were established with approximately 25,000 African American soldiers from across the United States. These Buffalo Soldiers served with French infantry units in the Battle of the Argonne and the second Battle of the Marne. Battle losses were high, but so were the Buffalo Soldiers' achievements. The French government bestowed the Croix de Guerre on 68 Buffalo Soldiers for their heroic service in battle.
The Pittsburgh Courier, the most widely read black newspaper in America, began the "Double V" campaign to encourage African Americans to join the war effort abroad and to secure equal rights for all Americans at home, regardless of color. Courier editor James G. Thompson wrote, "The first V for victory over our enemies from without, the second V for victory over our enemies from within."
Jackie Robinson served as a 2nd Lieutenant in the 9th Cavalry at Fort Riley, Kansas. Robinson was court-martialed when he refused to move to the back of a segregated bus during training exercises. He was acquitted of the charges and left the Army with an honorable discharge in 1944. Three years later, Robinson joined the Brooklyn Dodgers and became the first African American to play major league baseball.
President Truman issued Executive Order 9981 abolishing racial discrimination in the armed forces, effectively ending the formation of all-black regiments. The order took six years to be implemented and full integration of all Army units did not occur until the Korean War.
The United States Military Academy at West Point began awarding the annual Henry O. Flipper Award to a graduating cadet who exhibited "leadership, self-discipline, and perseverance in the face of unusual difficulties."
General Colin Powell, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, dedicated the Buffalo Soldier Monument at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. In his address, General Powell said, "The powerful purpose of this monument it to motivate us. To motivate us to keep struggling until all Americans have an equal seat at our national table, until all Americans enjoy every opportunity to excel, every chance to achieve their dream."
The U.S. Postal Service issued the 29-cent Buffalo Soldier commemorative stamp. Mort Kunstler, the artist who designed the stamp, said, "I deliberately placed the soldier and his mount against a white background to create contrast and to immediately establish the fact that these brave and famous troops were black Americans. To me, the story of the Buffalo Soldiers is one of the great sagas of our history."
From People Across Texas